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ABOUT THE LIBRARY
The LUMCON Library collection was originally housed in Ellender Memorial Library, located at Nicholls State University in Thibodaux, Louisiana. After completion of the DeFelice Marine Center in 1986, the collection was moved to its present location. Since that time, the Library has become an active resource center for LUMCON faculty and staff as well as Consortium member institutions, visiting researchers, students, and the public.
The library contains a computer lab and several study spaces available to visiting students, scientists, or groups (such as attendees of a writing retreat).
The collection and development of library materials reflects LUMCON’s research programs. The collection has approximately:
- 4,600 monographs
- 5,800 bound volumes
- 200 journal titles
- 26 current journal subscriptions
- 850 maps
- 35 atlases
- 3,600 government documents
- 1,500 reprints
In addition, the library houses a complete collection of research products generated by DeFelice Marine Center personnel since LUMCON’s inception.
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- Books can be checked out by filling out a card at the circulation desk. The length of time a book can be checked out varies depending on the patron’s status. Books may be renewed by contacting the department, but all items are subject to recall at any time.
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INTERNSHIP PROGRAM
The LUMCON Library is available as an internship site for graduate-level students who have completed at least two semesters toward a Master’s degree in Library and Information Science. Applications will be accepted on a continuing basis and internships may be completed during any semester. Prior library experience or an undergraduate degree in science is desirable, but not necessary. Credits will be awarded based on the number of person-hours completed (40 person-hours per credit hour).
The internship will consist of both field experience, encompassing many operations of a special library, and a special project in technical services. The Librarian will give the intern an overview of reference services, technical services, library administration, and budgeting, and will guide the intern through special projects. The LUMCON Library uses SIRSI/Dynix’s Symphony Integrated Library System as well as OCLC for Cataloging/Interlibrary Loan services.
Contact the Librarian for more information or to apply for an internship.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the following individuals for their guidance and input when creating the Dispersants Bibliography:
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- Victoria Broje, Per Daling, Alun Lewis, and Francois-Xavier Merlin offered valuable assistance in the early phases of this project. Per Daling’s support was especially noteworthy, by providing conference proceedings that otherwise could not be obtained.
- Deborah Ansell, ITOPF’s librarian, contributed by sharing her sizeable list of library holdings on dispersant publications with us, and filling in gaps where existing citation information was incomplete.
- Likewise, Julie Anne Richardson, librarian for Environment Canada, compiled a publication listing on dispersants housed in her collection, which provided us with additional citations for our project.
- Qianxin Lin at Louisiana State University provided API conference proceedings for us to use in transcribing abstracts.
- Nancy Kinner at the Coastal Response Research Center provided encouragement, focus, and connected us with some of the aforementioned people.
- Finally, Don Davis and Karen Reeder Emory at OSRADP deserve special mention for all of their help and direction during the span of this project.
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The LUMCON Library is a member of the International Association of Aquatic and Marine Science Libraries and Information Centers (IAMSLIC), the Southeast Affiliate of IAMSLIC Libraries (SAIL), and the Louisiana Library Network and Information Consortium (LOUIS). Additionally, the Library has access to OCLC Cataloging/Interlibrary loan services.
Click here to search LUMCON’s e-Library catalog using the LOUIS portal.
DISPERSANTS BIBLIOGRAPHY
Total Records Found: 1944
Lee, R.F. 1989. Principles of bioaccumulation of oils and dispersants by marine animals. Oil and Dispersant Toxicity Testing: Proceedings of a Workshop on Technical Specifications held in New Orleans, January 17-19, 1989, New Orleans, La: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office. pp. 63-71.
LeGore, R.S.; Marszalek, D.S.; Hofmann, J.E.; Cuddeback, J.E. 1983. A field experiment to assess impact of chemically dispersed oil on Arabian Gulf corals. In Proceedings: 3rd Middle East Oil Show, Exhibition Centre Bahrain, 14-17 March 1983, Dallas, Tx: Society of Petroleum Engineers. pp. 51-60.
Abstract
A coral reef at Jurayd Island in the Arabian Gulf was used for field experiments to determine the impact of chemically dispersed oil on corals. Corexit 9527 and Arabian Light crude were used either alone or in combination, with exposure times of 24 and 120 hours. Biological impacts were monitored immediately after exposure, and again in three-month intervals for a year. Growth rate was also examined after exposure. Coral growth appeared to be unaffected by exposure, and minimal biological impact was observed after treatments
A coral reef at Jurayd Island in the Arabian Gulf was used for field experiments to determine the impact of chemically dispersed oil on corals. Corexit 9527 and Arabian Light crude were used either alone or in combination, with exposure times of 24 and 120 hours. Biological impacts were monitored immediately after exposure, and again in three-month intervals for a year. Growth rate was also examined after exposure. Coral growth appeared to be unaffected by exposure, and minimal biological impact was observed after treatments
LeGore, S. et al. 1989. Effect of chemically dispersed oil on Arabian Gulf corals: field experiment. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 375-380.
Abstract
Portions of an Arabian Gulf coral reef were exposed to oil/dispersant mixtures, oil alone, and dispersant alone, while others were left untreated as controls. Arabian light crude and Corexit 9527 dispersant were the test toxicants. Two series of experiments were conducted, one with a 24-hour exposure period and the other with a five-day (120-hour) exposure period. Corals were stained with Alizarin Red S for growth rate studies and were extensively photographed to document observed effects. Corals were examined for biological impacts immediately after the exposures, and then at three-month intervals for one year. Water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and hydrocarbon concentrations were recorded during the exposure periods. Coral growth appeared unaffected by exposure to the toxicants under test conditions. Some Acropora species exposed to the dispersed oil for five days exhibited delayed, but minor, effects, which became apparent only during the relatively cold and stressful winter season
© 1989 with permission from APIPortions of an Arabian Gulf coral reef were exposed to oil/dispersant mixtures, oil alone, and dispersant alone, while others were left untreated as controls. Arabian light crude and Corexit 9527 dispersant were the test toxicants. Two series of experiments were conducted, one with a 24-hour exposure period and the other with a five-day (120-hour) exposure period. Corals were stained with Alizarin Red S for growth rate studies and were extensively photographed to document observed effects. Corals were examined for biological impacts immediately after the exposures, and then at three-month intervals for one year. Water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and hydrocarbon concentrations were recorded during the exposure periods. Coral growth appeared unaffected by exposure to the toxicants under test conditions. Some Acropora species exposed to the dispersed oil for five days exhibited delayed, but minor, effects, which became apparent only during the relatively cold and stressful winter season
Lehtinen, C. 1987. Environmental aspects of oil spill dispersants. In Seminar on Oil Pollution Questions: 19-20 November 1986, Norrköping, Sweden, Helsinki: Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission. pp. 202-217.
Abstract
This report describes details of research conducted on the acceptability and use of oil spill dispersants. Registration procedures and microbial biodegradation investigations are depicted. It is concluded that a more open policy of dispersant use in coastal waters should be adopted by Sweden
This report describes details of research conducted on the acceptability and use of oil spill dispersants. Registration procedures and microbial biodegradation investigations are depicted. It is concluded that a more open policy of dispersant use in coastal waters should be adopted by Sweden
Lehtinen, C. 1981. Investigation of Oil Dispersants. Stockholm: Styrelsen foer Teknisk Utveckling. 80p.
Lehtinen, C.M.; Vesala, A.M. 1984. Effectiveness of oil spill dispersants at low salinities and low water temperatures. Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982, Philadelphia, Pa: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 108-121. ISBN: 0803104006.
Abstract
The effect of ambient low salinity and low water temperature in the Baltic Sea on the effectiveness of dispersants was investigated in the laboratory using a Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman apparatus. Three dispersants were tested on two oils (fresh and weathered crude) at different water temperatures (4, 12, and 15°C) and different salinities (3, 7, and 12‰). The results show a strong dependency on water temperature for all the dispersants tested, although one chemical was less sensitive than the others in this respect. The dispersants showed significant differences between their sensitivity to changes in salinity and in the relationships between effectiveness and dosage. The stability of the dispersion obtained seems to be influenced by both type of oil and water temperature, and some difference between the chemicals could be found also in this respect. The parameters studied strongly affected the performance of the dispersants. It is therefore essential to make a careful choice of dispersants for use in low salinity environments such as the Baltic Sea
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM InternationalThe effect of ambient low salinity and low water temperature in the Baltic Sea on the effectiveness of dispersants was investigated in the laboratory using a Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman apparatus. Three dispersants were tested on two oils (fresh and weathered crude) at different water temperatures (4, 12, and 15°C) and different salinities (3, 7, and 12‰). The results show a strong dependency on water temperature for all the dispersants tested, although one chemical was less sensitive than the others in this respect. The dispersants showed significant differences between their sensitivity to changes in salinity and in the relationships between effectiveness and dosage. The stability of the dispersion obtained seems to be influenced by both type of oil and water temperature, and some difference between the chemicals could be found also in this respect. The parameters studied strongly affected the performance of the dispersants. It is therefore essential to make a careful choice of dispersants for use in low salinity environments such as the Baltic Sea
Lehtonen, K. 1989. The Effects of Oil and Dispersant on the Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis L.) of the Quark Region in the Gulf of Bothnia, Helsinki: Vesi- ja Ympäristöhallitus. 51p. ISBN: 9514725875.
Abstract
Finasol OSR-5 and a heavy fuel oil were investigated for toxicity using a static bioassay procedure. Blue mussels obtained from the Gulf of Bothnia, the site of a major oil spill in 1984. Mussels were exposed to pollutants for 24 h, and then underwent depuration in clean water for several weeks. Mortality and reduced ability of byssal attachment were monitored. Histological examinations showed severe inflammation in gastrointestinal tracts of the most severely affected organisms. High toxicity was noted for organisms exposed to low concentrations of oil/dispersant mixtures
Finasol OSR-5 and a heavy fuel oil were investigated for toxicity using a static bioassay procedure. Blue mussels obtained from the Gulf of Bothnia, the site of a major oil spill in 1984. Mussels were exposed to pollutants for 24 h, and then underwent depuration in clean water for several weeks. Mortality and reduced ability of byssal attachment were monitored. Histological examinations showed severe inflammation in gastrointestinal tracts of the most severely affected organisms. High toxicity was noted for organisms exposed to low concentrations of oil/dispersant mixtures
Lemlin, J. 1982. Dialogue on dispersants. Exxon Marine, 27 (1): 18-21.
Leskinen, E.; Ekman, M. 1990. Öljyn ja dispersanttien vaikutus perifytonin kolonisaatioon ja kasvuun = The effect of oil and dispersants on the colonization and growth of perifyton. The 1987 Oil Spill in the Gulf of Finland, Helsinki: Vesi- ja Ympäristöhallinnon julkaisuja. pp. 261-275. ISBN: 9514736753.
Lessard, R.R.; Demarco, G. 2000. The significance of oil spill dispersants. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 6 (1): 59-68. ISSN: 1353-2561. doi:10.1016/S1353-2561(99)00061-4.
Abstract
There is growing acceptance worldwide that use of dispersants to counter the effects of an oil spill offers many advantages and can often result in a net environmental benefit when considered in relation to other response options. A major reason for this growing support and increased reliance on dispersants is the advent of improved dispersant products that are low in toxicity to marine life and more effective at dispersing heavy and weathered oils - oils previously believed to be undispersible. This capability has been demonstrated through extensive laboratory testing, field trials, and dispersant application on actual spills. This paper summarizes recent advances in dispersant R and D and reviews the implications of technology advances
Reprinted from Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, Volume 6, R.R. Lessard, G. Demarco, Copyright 2000, with permission from ElsevierThere is growing acceptance worldwide that use of dispersants to counter the effects of an oil spill offers many advantages and can often result in a net environmental benefit when considered in relation to other response options. A major reason for this growing support and increased reliance on dispersants is the advent of improved dispersant products that are low in toxicity to marine life and more effective at dispersing heavy and weathered oils - oils previously believed to be undispersible. This capability has been demonstrated through extensive laboratory testing, field trials, and dispersant application on actual spills. This paper summarizes recent advances in dispersant R and D and reviews the implications of technology advances
Lessard, R.R. et al. 1999. Design and implementation of a mesocosm experiment on the environmental consequences of nearshore dispersant use. In Beyond 2000, Balancing Perspectives: Proceedings: 1999 International Oil Spill Conference: March 8-11, 1999, Seattle, Washington, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1027-1030. URL
Abstract
In April 1998 the first full-scale oil spill experiment was run at the Coastal Oilspill Simulation System (COSS) Facility in Corpus Christi, TX. The facility contains nine 110- foot long, eight-foot deep wave tanks for simulated nearshore or intertidal habitat experiments. Features include an adjustable two-foot tidal range, variable flow rate, and random wave capability. Sediment can be added to create bottom habitat and to develop an intertidal "shoreline". The project compared the ecological effects when oil is allowed to strand on the beach to the effects when dispersed oil is present in very shallow areas. Untreated and dispersed weathered Arabian Medium crude oil was released in three tanks each. Two other tanks served as controls. The fate and effects of the oil or dispersed oil were evaluated over ten days using caged marine species and detailed hydrocarbon chemistry. The tests were successfully completed, demonstrating the facility's impressive potential for similar experiments. Preliminary data analyses indicate that water column effects of dispersed oil were not significantly different from those of untreated oil, and the use of dispersant led to a clear reduction in shoreline accumulation of oil
© 1999 with permission from APIIn April 1998 the first full-scale oil spill experiment was run at the Coastal Oilspill Simulation System (COSS) Facility in Corpus Christi, TX. The facility contains nine 110- foot long, eight-foot deep wave tanks for simulated nearshore or intertidal habitat experiments. Features include an adjustable two-foot tidal range, variable flow rate, and random wave capability. Sediment can be added to create bottom habitat and to develop an intertidal "shoreline". The project compared the ecological effects when oil is allowed to strand on the beach to the effects when dispersed oil is present in very shallow areas. Untreated and dispersed weathered Arabian Medium crude oil was released in three tanks each. Two other tanks served as controls. The fate and effects of the oil or dispersed oil were evaluated over ten days using caged marine species and detailed hydrocarbon chemistry. The tests were successfully completed, demonstrating the facility's impressive potential for similar experiments. Preliminary data analyses indicate that water column effects of dispersed oil were not significantly different from those of untreated oil, and the use of dispersant led to a clear reduction in shoreline accumulation of oil
Levell, D. 1976. The effect of Kuwait crude oil and the dispersant BP1100X on the lugworm, Arenicola marina L. Marine Ecology and Oil Pollution, New York: Wiley. pp. 131-185. ISBN: 0470045418.
Levell, D. 1973. The effects of oil pollution and cleaning on the fauna of soft substrates. Annual Report for 1973, Pembroke, Wales, U.K: Field Studies Council, Orielton Field Centre. pp. 72-73.
Levine, E.A. 1999. Development and implementation of a dispersant observation job aid. In Beyond 2000, Balancing Perspectives: Proceedings: 1999 International Oil Spill Conference: March 8-11, 1999, Seattle, Washington, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1015-1018. URL
Abstract
The Job Aid is a field guide for dispersant observers after formal training. Individuals are prepared to observe applications by different platforms and able to competently describe their observations back to a command structure for decision making. The observer is not a controller or spotter for the actual application operation. For field durability it is formatted as bound five inches by seven inches plastic-coated cards. This Job Aid focuses on supporting the "Observation of Aerial Applications of Dispersants" training. This training imparts the ability to identify oil, describe its characteristics, and make recommendations back to the Federal On Scene Coordinator (FOSC) concerning future dispersant actions. The observer's recommendations to the Unified Command may range from "continue operations," "modify operations," or "cease operations. The training is based upon the supposition that the decision to use dispersants has already been made. The training does not attempt to cover the decision making process. It is incumbent on the individual to be familiar with the local and regional policies regarding use of dispersants and subsequent monitoring requirements. This job aid should be used in conjunction with the "Open Water Oil Identification Job Aid for Aerial Observation" to help describe the surface oil
© 1999 with permission from APIThe Job Aid is a field guide for dispersant observers after formal training. Individuals are prepared to observe applications by different platforms and able to competently describe their observations back to a command structure for decision making. The observer is not a controller or spotter for the actual application operation. For field durability it is formatted as bound five inches by seven inches plastic-coated cards. This Job Aid focuses on supporting the "Observation of Aerial Applications of Dispersants" training. This training imparts the ability to identify oil, describe its characteristics, and make recommendations back to the Federal On Scene Coordinator (FOSC) concerning future dispersant actions. The observer's recommendations to the Unified Command may range from "continue operations," "modify operations," or "cease operations. The training is based upon the supposition that the decision to use dispersants has already been made. The training does not attempt to cover the decision making process. It is incumbent on the individual to be familiar with the local and regional policies regarding use of dispersants and subsequent monitoring requirements. This job aid should be used in conjunction with the "Open Water Oil Identification Job Aid for Aerial Observation" to help describe the surface oil
Lewis, A.; Daling, P. 2001. Oil Spill Dispersants, Trondheim, Norway: SINTEF. 28p.. URL
Lewis, A.; Merlin, F.; Daling, P.; Reed, M. 2006. Applicability of Oil Spill Dispersants Part I: Overview, Brussels: European Maritime Safety Agency. 91p.. URL
Lewis, A.; Hill, A. 2005. Environmental Advice on the Use of Dispersants Around the Welsh Coast in the Event of an Oil Pollution Incident, Bangor, Wales: Countryside Council for Wales. 36p..
Lewis, A.; Crosbie, A.; Davies, L.; Lunel, T. 1998. Dispersion of Emulsified Oil at Sea, Oxfordshire, U.K: AEA Technology. (no page information available).
Lewis, A.; Daling, P.S.; Strøm-Kristiansen, T.; Nordvik, A.B.; Fiocco, R.J. 1995. Weathering and chemical dispersion of oil at sea. In Proceedings: 1995 International Oil Spill Conference (Achieving and Maintaining Preparedness): February 27-March 2, 1995, Long Beach, California, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 157-164. URL
Abstract
Small-scale laboratory methods were used to simulate the weathering processes that occur when crude oil is spilled at sea. Changes caused by evaporation and water-in-oil (w/o) emulsification were studied separately. W/o emulsions were assessed for chemical dispersibility using the Institut Français du Petrole (IFP) and Mackay-Nadeau-Steel-man (MNS) methods. Larger scale experiments were performed in a meso-scale flume. Crude oil was weathered for three days and then sprayed with dispersant. The results show that emulsion breaking is an important part of the mechanism of chemical dispersion, IFP, MNS, and Warren Spring Laboratory (WSL) tests, conducted on w/o emulsions recovered from the flume, produced much lower levels of dispersion than did treatment in the flume. The standard test procedures do not permit emulsion breaking to proceed to the extent observed in the flume. A sea trial also was conducted. Preliminary evaluation of the results shows that dispersant application partially broke the w/o emulsion that had rapidly formed. Dispersion proceeded at a slow rate but the treated slick was removed from the surface more rapidly than the control slick. The degree of dispersion was difficult to quantify by visual observation due to the weather conditions. A combination of remote sensing, surface sampling, and subsurface fluorometry provided a more reliable estimate
© 1995 with permission from APISmall-scale laboratory methods were used to simulate the weathering processes that occur when crude oil is spilled at sea. Changes caused by evaporation and water-in-oil (w/o) emulsification were studied separately. W/o emulsions were assessed for chemical dispersibility using the Institut Français du Petrole (IFP) and Mackay-Nadeau-Steel-man (MNS) methods. Larger scale experiments were performed in a meso-scale flume. Crude oil was weathered for three days and then sprayed with dispersant. The results show that emulsion breaking is an important part of the mechanism of chemical dispersion, IFP, MNS, and Warren Spring Laboratory (WSL) tests, conducted on w/o emulsions recovered from the flume, produced much lower levels of dispersion than did treatment in the flume. The standard test procedures do not permit emulsion breaking to proceed to the extent observed in the flume. A sea trial also was conducted. Preliminary evaluation of the results shows that dispersant application partially broke the w/o emulsion that had rapidly formed. Dispersion proceeded at a slow rate but the treated slick was removed from the surface more rapidly than the control slick. The degree of dispersion was difficult to quantify by visual observation due to the weather conditions. A combination of remote sensing, surface sampling, and subsurface fluorometry provided a more reliable estimate
Lewis, A.; Daling, P.S.; Brandvik, P.J.; Nordvik, A.B. 1995. The effect of oil weathering on the laboratory determined effectiveness of oil spill dispersants. In The Use of Chemical Countermeasure Product Data for Oil Spill Planning and Response: Workshop Proceedings, April 4-6, 1995, Xerox Document University and Conference Center, Leesburg, VA, Alexandria, Va: Scientific and Environmental Associates. Volume 2. pp. 157-194.
Lewis, A.; Daling, P.S.; Nordvik, A.B. 1995. The effect of oil weathering on the laboratory determined effectiveness of oil spill dispersants. In MSRC Workshop Report: Research on the Ecological Effects of Dispersants and Dispersed Oil, February 24-25, 1995, Washington, D.C: Marine Spill Response Corporation. 28p.
Lewis, A.; Daling, P.S.; Strøm-Kristiansen, T.; Brandvik, P.J. 1995. The behavior of Sture Blend crude oil spilled at sea and treated with dispersant. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Ottawa, Ont: Environment Canada. pp. 453-469.
Lewis, A.; Aurand, D. 1997. Putting Dispersants to Work: Overcoming Obstacles: an Issue Paper Prepared for the 1997 International Oil Spill Conference, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. 80p.
Lewis, A.; Crosbie, A.; Davies, L.; Lunel, T. 1998. The AEA ’97 North Sea field trials on oil weathering and aerial application of dispersants. In Dispersant Application in Alaska: A Technical Update, Anchorage Hilton Hotel, Anchorage, Alaska, March 18 and 19, 1998, Cordova, Ak: Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recovery Institute. pp. 79-110.
Lewis, A.; Crosbie, A.; Davies, L.; Lunel, T. 1998. Large scale field experiments into oil weathering at sea and aerial application of dispersants. In Proceedings: Twenty-First Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 10 to 12, 1998, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Ottawa, Ont: Environment Canada. pp. 319-344.
Abstract
Two dispersants, Corexit 9500 and Dasic Slickgone NS, were tested on weathered Forties Blend, Alaskan North Slope crude, and IFO-180 fuel oil in calm sea conditions. Forties Blend, which had been allowed to weather for about 45 h, was effectively dispersed with the two test products. ANS crude, weathered for 55 h, was completely dispersed with Corexit 9500 applied from the air. Corexit 9500 partially dispersed IFO-180 fuel oil that was weathered for 4 h. IFO-180 that had weathered for 23 h was dispersed in a limited fashion with the Corexit, even when applied in larger doses. IFO-180 that had emulsified with a high viscosity (20,000 - 30,000 cP) could not be dispersed
Two dispersants, Corexit 9500 and Dasic Slickgone NS, were tested on weathered Forties Blend, Alaskan North Slope crude, and IFO-180 fuel oil in calm sea conditions. Forties Blend, which had been allowed to weather for about 45 h, was effectively dispersed with the two test products. ANS crude, weathered for 55 h, was completely dispersed with Corexit 9500 applied from the air. Corexit 9500 partially dispersed IFO-180 fuel oil that was weathered for 4 h. IFO-180 that had weathered for 23 h was dispersed in a limited fashion with the Corexit, even when applied in larger doses. IFO-180 that had emulsified with a high viscosity (20,000 - 30,000 cP) could not be dispersed
Lewis, A.; Byford, D.C.; Laskey, P.R. 1985. Significance of dispersed oil droplet size in determining dispersant effectiveness under various conditions. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 433-440.
Abstract
Oil spill dispersants speed up the rate of natural dispersion by enabling the prevailing energy of the wind and waves to convert an oil slick into droplets. The droplets are then dispersed horizontally and vertically by the mixing action of the sea. Vertical dispersion is countered by the buoyancy of the droplets, which depends on oil density and droplet size. The magnitude of the forces available in the sea to create and disperse droplets varies with sea state. A variety of test methods are used to assess the effectiveness of dispersants. Many of these methods attempt to simulate the shearing and mixing action of the sea. The validity of these simulations is difficult to quantify. The oil droplet size distributions of dispersions produced in the Labofina (inverting flask), MNS (Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman), and Oscillating Hoop tests have been determined. An estimate of the relative magnitude of the forces generated in each method has been deduced from data on oil droplet size. The effects of varying dispersant composition, energy input, dispersant to oil ratio and temperature, are discussed. The lack of correlation between results obtained from the different tests is explained by identifying the predominant processes occurring in each method
© 1985 with permission from APIOil spill dispersants speed up the rate of natural dispersion by enabling the prevailing energy of the wind and waves to convert an oil slick into droplets. The droplets are then dispersed horizontally and vertically by the mixing action of the sea. Vertical dispersion is countered by the buoyancy of the droplets, which depends on oil density and droplet size. The magnitude of the forces available in the sea to create and disperse droplets varies with sea state. A variety of test methods are used to assess the effectiveness of dispersants. Many of these methods attempt to simulate the shearing and mixing action of the sea. The validity of these simulations is difficult to quantify. The oil droplet size distributions of dispersions produced in the Labofina (inverting flask), MNS (Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman), and Oscillating Hoop tests have been determined. An estimate of the relative magnitude of the forces generated in each method has been deduced from data on oil droplet size. The effects of varying dispersant composition, energy input, dispersant to oil ratio and temperature, are discussed. The lack of correlation between results obtained from the different tests is explained by identifying the predominant processes occurring in each method
Lewis, A. 2004. Determination of the Limiting Oil Viscosity for Chemical Dispersion at Sea, Southampton, U.K: Maritime and Coastguard Agency. 87p. URL
Lewis, A. 1995. Calibration and use of a helicopter bucket to apply oil spill dispersants. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Ottawa, Ont: Environment Canada. pp. 505-517.
Lewis, A. 2006. UK 2003 oil spill dispersant sea trials: overview of work done and results achieved. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2006 Conference, London (Electronic Media), Brussels: European Maritime Safety Agency. 12p..
Lewis, A. 2002. Feasibility Study on the Use of Dispersants in the Bristol Channel in the Event of an Oil Pollution Incident: Final Report to English Nature and Countryside Council for Wales: February 2002, Bangor, Wales: Cyngor Cefn Gwlad Cymru. 36p.
Lewis, A. et al. 1995. Key Factors that Control the Efficiency of Oil Spill Mechanical Recovery Methods, Washington, D.C: Marine Spill Response Corporation. 54p.
Lewis, A. et al. 1994. Chemical dispersion of oil and water-in-oil emulsions: a comparison of bench scale test methods and dispersant treatment in meso-scale flume. In Proceedings: Seventeenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 8-10, 1994, Coast Plaza Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Ottawa, Ont: Technology Development Branch. pp. 979-1010.
Lewis, J.B. 1971. Effect of crude oil and an oil-spill dispersant on reef corals. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2 (4): 59-62. ISSN: 0025-326X. doi:10.1016/0025-326X(71)90211-6.
Abstract
Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the effects of crude oil and an oil-spill detergent upon 4 common spp of Caribbean corals - Porites porites, Agaricia agaricites, Favia fragum and Madracis asperula. All 4 spp are sensitive to pollution by both crude oil and the oil-spill dispersant Corexit, but were more affected by the dispersant than crude oil. The branching corals P. porites and M. asperula were more affected by the pollutants than the encrusting spp A. agaricites and F. fragum and tended to show less ability to recover from exposure than did the encrusting forms. Both pollutants have an harmful effect on corals at concentrations of 100 to 500 ppm and recovery after 24 hr exposure at these concentrations is not complete. The harmful effects of oil on Caribbean corals may be due in part to dissolved volatiles contained in the oil
© CSA, 1971Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the effects of crude oil and an oil-spill detergent upon 4 common spp of Caribbean corals - Porites porites, Agaricia agaricites, Favia fragum and Madracis asperula. All 4 spp are sensitive to pollution by both crude oil and the oil-spill dispersant Corexit, but were more affected by the dispersant than crude oil. The branching corals P. porites and M. asperula were more affected by the pollutants than the encrusting spp A. agaricites and F. fragum and tended to show less ability to recover from exposure than did the encrusting forms. Both pollutants have an harmful effect on corals at concentrations of 100 to 500 ppm and recovery after 24 hr exposure at these concentrations is not complete. The harmful effects of oil on Caribbean corals may be due in part to dissolved volatiles contained in the oil
Li, Z.; Lee, K.; King, T.; Boufadel, M.C.; Venosa, A.D. 2008. Assessment of chemical dispersant effectiveness in a wave tank under regular non-breaking and breaking wave conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56 (5): 903-912. ISSN: 0025-326X. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.01.031.
Abstract
Current chemical dispersant effectiveness tests for product selection are commonly performed with bench-scale testing apparatus. However, for the assessment of oil dispersant effectiveness under real sea state conditions, test protocols are required to have hydrodynamic conditions closer to the natural environment, including transport and dilution effects. To achieve this goal, Fisheries and Oceans Canada and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designed and constructed a wave tank system to study chemical dispersant effectiveness under controlled mixing energy conditions (regular non-breaking, spilling breaking, and plunging breaking waves). Quantification of oil dispersant effectiveness was based on observed changes in dispersed oil concentrations and oil-droplet size distribution. The study results quantitatively demonstrated that total dispersed oil concentration and breakup kinetics of oil droplets in the water column were strongly dependent on the presence of chemical dispersants and the influence of breaking waves. These data on the effectiveness of dispersants as a function of sea state will have significant implications in the drafting of future operational guidelines for dispersant use at sea
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 56, Z. Li, K. Lee, T. King, M.C. Boufadel, A.D. Venosa, Copyright 2008, with permission from ElsevierCurrent chemical dispersant effectiveness tests for product selection are commonly performed with bench-scale testing apparatus. However, for the assessment of oil dispersant effectiveness under real sea state conditions, test protocols are required to have hydrodynamic conditions closer to the natural environment, including transport and dilution effects. To achieve this goal, Fisheries and Oceans Canada and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designed and constructed a wave tank system to study chemical dispersant effectiveness under controlled mixing energy conditions (regular non-breaking, spilling breaking, and plunging breaking waves). Quantification of oil dispersant effectiveness was based on observed changes in dispersed oil concentrations and oil-droplet size distribution. The study results quantitatively demonstrated that total dispersed oil concentration and breakup kinetics of oil droplets in the water column were strongly dependent on the presence of chemical dispersants and the influence of breaking waves. These data on the effectiveness of dispersants as a function of sea state will have significant implications in the drafting of future operational guidelines for dispersant use at sea
Li, Z.; Boufadel, M.C.; Venosa, A.D.; Lee, K. 2006. A wave tank facility to assess chemical oil dispersant effectiveness as a function of energy dissipation rate. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2006 Conference, London (Electronic Media), Brussels: European Maritime Safety Agency. 12p..
Li, Z. et al. 2007. Effects of chemical dispersants and mineral fines on crude oil dispersion in a wave tank under breaking waves. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54 (7): 983-993. ISSN: 0025-326X. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.02.012.
Abstract
The interaction of chemical dispersants and suspended sediments with crude oil influences the fate and transport of oil spills in coastal waters. A wave tank study was conducted to investigate the effects of chemical dispersants and mineral fines on the dispersion of oil and the formation of oil–mineral-aggregates (OMAs) in natural seawater. Results of ultraviolet spectrofluorometry and gas chromatography flame ionized detection analysis indicated that dispersants and mineral fines, alone and in combination, enhanced the dispersion of oil into the water column. Measurements taken with a laser in situ scattering and transmissometer (LISST-100X) showed that the presence of mineral fines increased the total concentration of the suspended particles from 4 to 10 μl l−1, whereas the presence of dispersants decreased the particle size (mass mean diameter) of OMAs from 50 to 10 μm. Observation with an epifluorescence microscope indicated that the presence of dispersants, mineral fines, or both in combination significantly increased the number of particles dispersed into the water
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 54, Z. Li, P. Kepkay, K. Lee, T. King, M.C. Boufadel, A.D. Venosa, Copyright 2007, with permission from ElsevierThe interaction of chemical dispersants and suspended sediments with crude oil influences the fate and transport of oil spills in coastal waters. A wave tank study was conducted to investigate the effects of chemical dispersants and mineral fines on the dispersion of oil and the formation of oil–mineral-aggregates (OMAs) in natural seawater. Results of ultraviolet spectrofluorometry and gas chromatography flame ionized detection analysis indicated that dispersants and mineral fines, alone and in combination, enhanced the dispersion of oil into the water column. Measurements taken with a laser in situ scattering and transmissometer (LISST-100X) showed that the presence of mineral fines increased the total concentration of the suspended particles from 4 to 10 μl l−1, whereas the presence of dispersants decreased the particle size (mass mean diameter) of OMAs from 50 to 10 μm. Observation with an epifluorescence microscope indicated that the presence of dispersants, mineral fines, or both in combination significantly increased the number of particles dispersed into the water
Lichtentaler, R.G.; Daling, P.S. 1983. Dispersion of chemically treated crude oil in Norwegian offshore waters. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 7-14.
Abstract
In May and July 1982, two series of dispersant research oil spills were carried out off the Norwegian coast. The May series comprised three discharges of 2,000 liters of Statfjord topped crude oil (initial boiling point 150 °C). Two of the slicks were treated with dispersants (A and B) from a boat while the third untreated slick served as control. The July series comprised four discharges of 2,000 liters of Statfjord crude oil, with the application of three dispersants (A, B, and C), and one untreated slick as control. Water samples were collected from under the slicks and analyzed for total petroleum using a gas chromatographic technique. Chemical analyses showed six percent dispersion of the oil for dispersant A, and 17 percent for dispersant B in the May series. Effectiveness of dispersants in the July series was found to be 19 percent for dispersant A and 22 percent and 2 percent for dispersants B and C, respectively. Gas chromatographic analyses showed in several cases the presence of dispersants (up to two ppm) in water samples without the presence of petroleum at all. The highest oil contents found in water samples were 10 ppm at a one meter depth. The variations in the effectiveness of the three dispersants tested in the field were later confirmed in laboratory tests
© 1983 with permission from APIIn May and July 1982, two series of dispersant research oil spills were carried out off the Norwegian coast. The May series comprised three discharges of 2,000 liters of Statfjord topped crude oil (initial boiling point 150 °C). Two of the slicks were treated with dispersants (A and B) from a boat while the third untreated slick served as control. The July series comprised four discharges of 2,000 liters of Statfjord crude oil, with the application of three dispersants (A, B, and C), and one untreated slick as control. Water samples were collected from under the slicks and analyzed for total petroleum using a gas chromatographic technique. Chemical analyses showed six percent dispersion of the oil for dispersant A, and 17 percent for dispersant B in the May series. Effectiveness of dispersants in the July series was found to be 19 percent for dispersant A and 22 percent and 2 percent for dispersants B and C, respectively. Gas chromatographic analyses showed in several cases the presence of dispersants (up to two ppm) in water samples without the presence of petroleum at all. The highest oil contents found in water samples were 10 ppm at a one meter depth. The variations in the effectiveness of the three dispersants tested in the field were later confirmed in laboratory tests
Lichtenthaler, R.G.; Daling, P.S. 1985. Aerial application of dispersants: comparison of slick behavior of chemically treated versus non-treated slicks. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 471-478.
Abstract
From June 18 to 22, 1984 two series of dispersant tests were carried out off the Norwegian coast. The first series comprised 2 parallel slicks: one control and one treated with dispersant 2 hours after discharge. The second series comprised 4 parallel slicks: (1) control; (2) dispersant application after 1 hour; (3) oil and dispersant mixed prior to discharge; and (4) dispersant application 4 hours after discharge. Each slick contained approximately 10 m3 of fuel oil. The dispersant applied by aircraft was Corexit 9527. The development of the different slicks was continuously monitored by aerial surveillance using side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), infrared and ultraviolet remote sensing, and vertical color photography as well as video recording for at least 6 hours (first series) and up to 12 hours (first series) and up to 12 hours (second series) after discharge. Dispersion of oil into water column was investigated by turbidity measurements in the water column and by analyses of oil content in water samples from different depths. Furthermore, emulsion formation and viscosity changes of the surface oil were studied in each slick. Aerial registrations as well as water column measurements show that both the horizontal and vertical spreading of oil was significantly enhanced in dispersant-treated versus non-treated slicks. In the first series, the dispersant-slick covered an area 2 to 3 times larger than the control slick a few hours after treatment. Hydrocarbon concentrations in the water column were found to be up to 40 ppm in treated slicks. Viscosity of the surface oil in untreated slicks increased due to emulsion formation, while the viscosity of surface oil in treated slicks decreased, likely due to an emulsion breaking effect of the dispersant
© 1985 with permission from APIFrom June 18 to 22, 1984 two series of dispersant tests were carried out off the Norwegian coast. The first series comprised 2 parallel slicks: one control and one treated with dispersant 2 hours after discharge. The second series comprised 4 parallel slicks: (1) control; (2) dispersant application after 1 hour; (3) oil and dispersant mixed prior to discharge; and (4) dispersant application 4 hours after discharge. Each slick contained approximately 10 m3 of fuel oil. The dispersant applied by aircraft was Corexit 9527. The development of the different slicks was continuously monitored by aerial surveillance using side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), infrared and ultraviolet remote sensing, and vertical color photography as well as video recording for at least 6 hours (first series) and up to 12 hours (first series) and up to 12 hours (second series) after discharge. Dispersion of oil into water column was investigated by turbidity measurements in the water column and by analyses of oil content in water samples from different depths. Furthermore, emulsion formation and viscosity changes of the surface oil were studied in each slick. Aerial registrations as well as water column measurements show that both the horizontal and vertical spreading of oil was significantly enhanced in dispersant-treated versus non-treated slicks. In the first series, the dispersant-slick covered an area 2 to 3 times larger than the control slick a few hours after treatment. Hydrocarbon concentrations in the water column were found to be up to 40 ppm in treated slicks. Viscosity of the surface oil in untreated slicks increased due to emulsion formation, while the viscosity of surface oil in treated slicks decreased, likely due to an emulsion breaking effect of the dispersant
Lin, Q.; Mendelssohn, I.A. 2005. Dispersants as countermeasures in nearshore oil spills for coastal habitat protection. In International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 447-451. URL
Abstract
Oil spills in nearshore environments may eventually move into sensitive coastal habitats such as coastal marshes and impact marsh organisms. Application of dispersants to spilled oil in nearshore environments before the oil drifts into marshes was simulated, and the toxicity, impact and effectiveness of dispersants were investigated. The tolerance of the marsh plant Sagittaria lancifolia to the recently marketed dispersant JD-2000 was about 20 to 80 times higher than that of the standard test-organisms Menidia beryllina and Mysidopsis bahia, respectively. The LC50 of the dispersant JD-2000 for Sagittaria lancifolia was greater than 8000 ppm. Furthermore, the application of the dispersant JD-2000 significantly relieved the adverse effects of crude, diesel and No. 2 fuel oil on marsh vegetation. Upon contact with plant shoots on the rising tide, the un-dispersed oils detrimentally impacted the marsh plants Spartina alterniflora and Sagittaria lancifolia. Mortality rates significantly increased even at 150-ppm oil dosage. The 750-ppm No. 2 fuel oil without the dispersant application resulted in more than 90% mortality for Spartina alterniflora in 3 weeks. In contrast, the oils chemically dispersed with JD-2000, regardless of oil type and oil concentration, did not significantly affect the marsh plants compared to the no-oil control. Therefore, the dispersant application greatly reduced oil impact on marsh vegetation, indicating the potential for using dispersants as alternative countermeasures to protect sensitive coastal habitats during nearshore oil spills
© 2005 with permission from APIOil spills in nearshore environments may eventually move into sensitive coastal habitats such as coastal marshes and impact marsh organisms. Application of dispersants to spilled oil in nearshore environments before the oil drifts into marshes was simulated, and the toxicity, impact and effectiveness of dispersants were investigated. The tolerance of the marsh plant Sagittaria lancifolia to the recently marketed dispersant JD-2000 was about 20 to 80 times higher than that of the standard test-organisms Menidia beryllina and Mysidopsis bahia, respectively. The LC50 of the dispersant JD-2000 for Sagittaria lancifolia was greater than 8000 ppm. Furthermore, the application of the dispersant JD-2000 significantly relieved the adverse effects of crude, diesel and No. 2 fuel oil on marsh vegetation. Upon contact with plant shoots on the rising tide, the un-dispersed oils detrimentally impacted the marsh plants Spartina alterniflora and Sagittaria lancifolia. Mortality rates significantly increased even at 150-ppm oil dosage. The 750-ppm No. 2 fuel oil without the dispersant application resulted in more than 90% mortality for Spartina alterniflora in 3 weeks. In contrast, the oils chemically dispersed with JD-2000, regardless of oil type and oil concentration, did not significantly affect the marsh plants compared to the no-oil control. Therefore, the dispersant application greatly reduced oil impact on marsh vegetation, indicating the potential for using dispersants as alternative countermeasures to protect sensitive coastal habitats during nearshore oil spills
Lindblom, G.P. 1987. Measurement and prediction of depositional accuracy in dispersant spraying from large airplanes. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 325-328.
Abstract
Aerial application of dispersants has progressed to include very large airplanes, such as the Hercules C-130, for which a portable spray unit has been developed. This unit, which can be rapidly placed in the cargo aircraft (without any mechanical alterations) was flight tested with spraying of a dispersant concentrate in 1982. The tests measured actual deposition of chemical under various conditions. The most definitive data were collected using a “deposition track,” positioned on the ground across the flight path of the airplane. The dyed dispersant was recovered from this track and the data converted to amount per unit area, and to percent of total pumped fluid on-target. The results led to correlation of depositional accuracy in terms of the air shear experienced by the sprayed fluid. The data has been further used to develop a mathematical prediction for design of dispersant treatment procedures using high-speed airplanes. Use of these considerations in operational planning can improve dispersant dosage control by preventing both under-treatment and wasteful off-target drift
© 1987 with permission from APIAerial application of dispersants has progressed to include very large airplanes, such as the Hercules C-130, for which a portable spray unit has been developed. This unit, which can be rapidly placed in the cargo aircraft (without any mechanical alterations) was flight tested with spraying of a dispersant concentrate in 1982. The tests measured actual deposition of chemical under various conditions. The most definitive data were collected using a “deposition track,” positioned on the ground across the flight path of the airplane. The dyed dispersant was recovered from this track and the data converted to amount per unit area, and to percent of total pumped fluid on-target. The results led to correlation of depositional accuracy in terms of the air shear experienced by the sprayed fluid. The data has been further used to develop a mathematical prediction for design of dispersant treatment procedures using high-speed airplanes. Use of these considerations in operational planning can improve dispersant dosage control by preventing both under-treatment and wasteful off-target drift
Lindblom, G.P.; Emery, B.D.; Lara, M.A.G. 1981. Aerial application of dispersants at the Ixtoc I spill. In Proceedings: 1981 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), March 2-5, 1981, Atlanta, Georgia, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 259-262.
Abstract
Chemical dispersants were a valuable part of the response to the Ixtoc I blowout and spill. Use of these chemicals effectively prevented floating oil from entering near-shore environments, particularly those areas that represent the main migration routes for shrimp larvae. Selective aerial treatment of oil masses that threatened locations 20 to 25 miles (323 to 40 km) from shore was carried out along over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of coastline. Oil treated ranged in thickness from about 50 to 75 μm to 0.15 to 0.2 mm. This oil appeared from the air as vast silver sheets, orange-brown emulsions, and darker brown accumulations, and represented oil concentration of about 800 to over 3,000 bbl/mi2 (49 to 184 m3/km2). All were successfully treated even after being on the water for 4 to 6 months. The aircraft used were Douglas DC-6B and DC-4 spray planes which had previously been tested in dispersant spraying during overland projects. These airplanes, capable of carrying over 3,000 gal (11,356 1) per flight, operated from 5 different bases during the work, and flew more than 1,000 hours on 493 missions, with an average coverage of about 2 mi2 (5.1 km2) per spray flight. Dispersant dosage varied from 2 to 4 gal/acre (18 to 37 l/ha) over approximately 1,000 mi2 (2,590 km2) of sea surface. This paper presents details of the spraying operations, the logistical concerns of the project and aircraft operating and navigational procedures. It also addresses the economic implications of this operation for future contingency planning and spill response
© 1981 with permission from APIChemical dispersants were a valuable part of the response to the Ixtoc I blowout and spill. Use of these chemicals effectively prevented floating oil from entering near-shore environments, particularly those areas that represent the main migration routes for shrimp larvae. Selective aerial treatment of oil masses that threatened locations 20 to 25 miles (323 to 40 km) from shore was carried out along over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of coastline. Oil treated ranged in thickness from about 50 to 75 μm to 0.15 to 0.2 mm. This oil appeared from the air as vast silver sheets, orange-brown emulsions, and darker brown accumulations, and represented oil concentration of about 800 to over 3,000 bbl/mi2 (49 to 184 m3/km2). All were successfully treated even after being on the water for 4 to 6 months. The aircraft used were Douglas DC-6B and DC-4 spray planes which had previously been tested in dispersant spraying during overland projects. These airplanes, capable of carrying over 3,000 gal (11,356 1) per flight, operated from 5 different bases during the work, and flew more than 1,000 hours on 493 missions, with an average coverage of about 2 mi2 (5.1 km2) per spray flight. Dispersant dosage varied from 2 to 4 gal/acre (18 to 37 l/ha) over approximately 1,000 mi2 (2,590 km2) of sea surface. This paper presents details of the spraying operations, the logistical concerns of the project and aircraft operating and navigational procedures. It also addresses the economic implications of this operation for future contingency planning and spill response
Lindblom, G.P.; Cashion, B.S. 1983. Operational considerations for optimum deposition efficiency in aerial application of dispersants. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 53-60. URL
Abstract
The growing worldwide recognition of the value of aircraft for application of dispersants to marine oil spills has resulted in a number of tests and field trials, but they have developed new concerns regarding control of depositional efficiency. These are similar to those extensively studied by the agricultural aviation industry, and involve anything influencing placement of a calculated dosage on a given area with minimum variation or loss due to aircraft turbulence, drift, or other factors. Aerial application of dispersants differs from agricultural practice in the physical properties of the fluids sprayed, the dosage generally required, and operational factors such as altitude, speed, swath, and total area to be covered. Consideration of these may result in need for special mechanical designs or alterations in the spray system. The major requirement for depositional efficiency is the droplet size distribution, which is affected by at least five factors. The most critical are nozzle diameter, viscosity of the fluid sprayed, and its exit velocity relative to the aircraft speed. These, together with pressure and pump rates, result in two shear regimes which are the ultimate controllers of droplet size. This report presents evidence for the above from mathematical model studies, laboratory windstream tests, and flight tests of both piston and turbo powdered aircraft. The data are used to propose a framework of requirements for optimal aerial dispersant application operations
© 1983 with permission from APIThe growing worldwide recognition of the value of aircraft for application of dispersants to marine oil spills has resulted in a number of tests and field trials, but they have developed new concerns regarding control of depositional efficiency. These are similar to those extensively studied by the agricultural aviation industry, and involve anything influencing placement of a calculated dosage on a given area with minimum variation or loss due to aircraft turbulence, drift, or other factors. Aerial application of dispersants differs from agricultural practice in the physical properties of the fluids sprayed, the dosage generally required, and operational factors such as altitude, speed, swath, and total area to be covered. Consideration of these may result in need for special mechanical designs or alterations in the spray system. The major requirement for depositional efficiency is the droplet size distribution, which is affected by at least five factors. The most critical are nozzle diameter, viscosity of the fluid sprayed, and its exit velocity relative to the aircraft speed. These, together with pressure and pump rates, result in two shear regimes which are the ultimate controllers of droplet size. This report presents evidence for the above from mathematical model studies, laboratory windstream tests, and flight tests of both piston and turbo powdered aircraft. The data are used to propose a framework of requirements for optimal aerial dispersant application operations
Lindblom, G.P.; Horn, S.A.; Jefferies, J.C.; O'Neal, J. 1983. Flight tests of a self-contained dispersant spray system for cargo aircraft. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 585.
Lindblom, G.P. 1978. Oil spill control chemicals -- a current view. Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium, Philadelphia, Pa: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 127-140. ISBN: 0465900024.
Abstract
This paper examines the current status of oil spill chemicals under five categories: definition of terms, classification of products, the mode of action of various-type chemicals, potential ecotoxicity, and the application methods required to obtain optimum results. The term “oil spill control chemical,” as used herein, includes dispersants, collecting agents, shoreline protection chemicals, and post-spill cleaners. Dispersants are further categorized depending upon the solvent type used or on the recommended method of use. The concept of chemical dose per unit area is suggested as the most realistic for development of application systems based on the mode of action of various chemicals, and for tests to determine their efficiency and toxicity. Boat and aerial dispersant spray systems are examined in detail to emphasize certain design criteria and to identify limitations
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM InternationalThis paper examines the current status of oil spill chemicals under five categories: definition of terms, classification of products, the mode of action of various-type chemicals, potential ecotoxicity, and the application methods required to obtain optimum results. The term “oil spill control chemical,” as used herein, includes dispersants, collecting agents, shoreline protection chemicals, and post-spill cleaners. Dispersants are further categorized depending upon the solvent type used or on the recommended method of use. The concept of chemical dose per unit area is suggested as the most realistic for development of application systems based on the mode of action of various chemicals, and for tests to determine their efficiency and toxicity. Boat and aerial dispersant spray systems are examined in detail to emphasize certain design criteria and to identify limitations
Lindblom, G.P.; Barker, C.D. 1978. Evaluation of equipment for aerial spraying of oil dispersant chemicals. Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium, Philadelphia, Pa: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 169-179. ISBN: 0465900024.
Abstract
Tests of the feasibility of using helicopters or large aircraft for spraying of dispersants were performed during the summer of 1977 in desert areas of the Southwestern United States. The object was to study the interrelation of such variables as droplet size, swath width, altitude, speed, pump rate, dose of chemical per unit area, and variations in nozzle design. Exhaustive research was not possible within limitations of time and available equipment. It was concluded that aerial spraying is feasible and potentially of great use in responding to oil spills. Careful attention should be given to operating parameters and spray equipment design. Further tests, treating oil slicks at sea with aircraft spraying, are indicated
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM InternationalTests of the feasibility of using helicopters or large aircraft for spraying of dispersants were performed during the summer of 1977 in desert areas of the Southwestern United States. The object was to study the interrelation of such variables as droplet size, swath width, altitude, speed, pump rate, dose of chemical per unit area, and variations in nozzle design. Exhaustive research was not possible within limitations of time and available equipment. It was concluded that aerial spraying is feasible and potentially of great use in responding to oil spills. Careful attention should be given to operating parameters and spray equipment design. Further tests, treating oil slicks at sea with aircraft spraying, are indicated
Lindblom, G.P. 1979. Logistical planning for oil spill chemical use. In Proceedings of the 1979 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Los Angeles, Ca., March, 1979, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 453-458.
Abstract
The use of chemical agents in oil spill cleanup should be rapid, but not haphazard. As with mechanical measures, both proper equipment and trained personnel must be available in order to employ chemicals most efficiently. This paper reviews those subjects which are particularly important to successful chemical applications, and which must be carefully considered in contingency planning. These are chemical types and their modes of action, design and operation of the equipment required, regulation of chemical dose per unit area, and the limitations (to both boats and aircraft) of a distant operations base. Various kinds of oil spill control chemicals are likely to be used during a spill incident. Therefore, planning must also provide for flexibility in application equipment design in order to obtain the maximum service per unit. The design and construction of a portable chemical spraying system (which can be used on workboats, tugs, or other vessels of opportunity) is discussed. The adequacy of aerial spray systems is also examined in terms of required pump rates, chemical and equipment load, nozzle types and capacity, spraying time on-site, and volume of chemical delivered. It is shown that small aircraft are only useful near shore, and that (as the spill area increases) several large airplanes will be required
© 1979 with permission from APIThe use of chemical agents in oil spill cleanup should be rapid, but not haphazard. As with mechanical measures, both proper equipment and trained personnel must be available in order to employ chemicals most efficiently. This paper reviews those subjects which are particularly important to successful chemical applications, and which must be carefully considered in contingency planning. These are chemical types and their modes of action, design and operation of the equipment required, regulation of chemical dose per unit area, and the limitations (to both boats and aircraft) of a distant operations base. Various kinds of oil spill control chemicals are likely to be used during a spill incident. Therefore, planning must also provide for flexibility in application equipment design in order to obtain the maximum service per unit. The design and construction of a portable chemical spraying system (which can be used on workboats, tugs, or other vessels of opportunity) is discussed. The adequacy of aerial spray systems is also examined in terms of required pump rates, chemical and equipment load, nozzle types and capacity, spraying time on-site, and volume of chemical delivered. It is shown that small aircraft are only useful near shore, and that (as the spill area increases) several large airplanes will be required
Lindén, O. 1974. Effects of oil spill dispersants on the early development of Baltic herring. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 11 (2): 141-148. ISSN: 0003-455X.
Abstract
The effects of 2 oil spill dispersants (BP 1100X and Finasol SC) used in Finland and Sweden on the eggs and larvae of the Baltic spring-spawning herring (Clupea harengus membras L.) were studied by exposing eggs to different concentrations of the test media 6 hr after fertilization or in connection with fertilization. In addition, larvae which had hatched in pure sea water were exposed to the same media. The salinity was approx 6 ppt and the temp 11 plus or minus 0.5 °C (eggs) or 11.5 plus or minus 0.5 °C (larvae). A concentration as low as 1 ppm Finasol SC induced abnormal cell division and malformed embryos. In both test media the heart rate of the embryos decreased. All concentrations of BP 1100X caused a significant decrease in the heart rate early in development. With increasing concentration, both dispersants caused increased numbers of malformed larvae and a decreased percentage of successful hatching, with no hatching at 100 or 50 ppm Finasol SC. Eggs were more sensitive if exposure started in connection with fertilization than 6 hr after fertilization. Larvae exposed to the dispersants were more sensitive than embryos before hatching. The toxicity of Finasol SC appears to be of the same magnitude as that of the BP 1002 used in connection with the 'Torrey Canyon' oil spill
© CSA, 1974The effects of 2 oil spill dispersants (BP 1100X and Finasol SC) used in Finland and Sweden on the eggs and larvae of the Baltic spring-spawning herring (Clupea harengus membras L.) were studied by exposing eggs to different concentrations of the test media 6 hr after fertilization or in connection with fertilization. In addition, larvae which had hatched in pure sea water were exposed to the same media. The salinity was approx 6 ppt and the temp 11 plus or minus 0.5 °C (eggs) or 11.5 plus or minus 0.5 °C (larvae). A concentration as low as 1 ppm Finasol SC induced abnormal cell division and malformed embryos. In both test media the heart rate of the embryos decreased. All concentrations of BP 1100X caused a significant decrease in the heart rate early in development. With increasing concentration, both dispersants caused increased numbers of malformed larvae and a decreased percentage of successful hatching, with no hatching at 100 or 50 ppm Finasol SC. Eggs were more sensitive if exposure started in connection with fertilization than 6 hr after fertilization. Larvae exposed to the dispersants were more sensitive than embryos before hatching. The toxicity of Finasol SC appears to be of the same magnitude as that of the BP 1002 used in connection with the 'Torrey Canyon' oil spill
Lindén, O. 1975. Acute effects of oil and oil/dispersant mixture on larvae of Baltic herring. Ambio, 4 (3): 130-133. ISSN: 0044-7447.
Abstract
The acute effects of a crude oil and a mixture of crude and two dispersants (BP 1100 X, Finasol OSR2) on newly hatched larvae of Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras L. are described in this report. The results show that the larvae are 50-100 times more sensitive to a dispersant/oil mixture than to natural oil dispersion. Also, the acute toxicity of a naturally dispersed crude oil diminishes noticeably in 24 and 72 hours, but if the oil is dispersed by chemical means, high toxicity remains almost unchanged over the same time period
The acute effects of a crude oil and a mixture of crude and two dispersants (BP 1100 X, Finasol OSR2) on newly hatched larvae of Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras L. are described in this report. The results show that the larvae are 50-100 times more sensitive to a dispersant/oil mixture than to natural oil dispersion. Also, the acute toxicity of a naturally dispersed crude oil diminishes noticeably in 24 and 72 hours, but if the oil is dispersed by chemical means, high toxicity remains almost unchanged over the same time period
Lindén, O. 1976. The influence of crude oil and mixtures of crude oil/dispersants on the ontogenic development of the Baltic herring, Clupea harengus membras L. Ambio, 5 (3): 136-140. ISSN: 0044-7447.
Abstract
It is indisputable that the use of oil spill dispersants in efforts to eliminate the biological effects of oil pollution, results in increased jeopardy to the marine ecosystems involved. The habitual use of dispersants in attempts to protect biological life is unacceptable, both onshore and offshore, except under special circumstances, eg in cases of extreme hazard to populations of sea birds. The present report compares the effects of a crude oil, and mixtures of the same oil and oil spill dispersants, on the ontogenic development of Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras L. One of the dispersants which was formerly used extensively is highly toxic, while the others are 'non toxic' dispersants developed after the Torrey Canyon disaster. Several physiological functions were found to be severely affected: embryonic movement rate, rate of embryonic heart beat, morphology, and length of the larvae. Both the acute and the sublethal effects of the oil were found to increase several hundred fold if the oil is dispersed by the 'non toxic' dispersants, and by an additional factor of ten if the highly toxic dispersant is used
It is indisputable that the use of oil spill dispersants in efforts to eliminate the biological effects of oil pollution, results in increased jeopardy to the marine ecosystems involved. The habitual use of dispersants in attempts to protect biological life is unacceptable, both onshore and offshore, except under special circumstances, eg in cases of extreme hazard to populations of sea birds. The present report compares the effects of a crude oil, and mixtures of the same oil and oil spill dispersants, on the ontogenic development of Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras L. One of the dispersants which was formerly used extensively is highly toxic, while the others are 'non toxic' dispersants developed after the Torrey Canyon disaster. Several physiological functions were found to be severely affected: embryonic movement rate, rate of embryonic heart beat, morphology, and length of the larvae. Both the acute and the sublethal effects of the oil were found to increase several hundred fold if the oil is dispersed by the 'non toxic' dispersants, and by an additional factor of ten if the highly toxic dispersant is used
Lindén, O.; Rosemarin, A.; Lindskog, A.; Höglund, C.; Johansson, S. 1985. Ecological effects of oil versus oil plus dispersant on the littoral ecosystem of the Baltic Sea. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California, Washington, D.C: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 485-490.
Abstract
The effects of a North Sea oil with or without the addition of dispersant were studied in a model of the littoral ecosystem of the Baltic Sea. Experiments were carried out in six pools with a volume of 8 m3 each with flowthrough seawater and an ecosystem of the shallow rocky Baltic archipelago. All major fauna and flora were transferred into the pools in normal numbers and proportions. Two of the pools were exposed to oil alone. The amount of oil was equivalent to 20 ppm assuming total mixture. Two other pools were exposed to the same amount of oil and an oil dispersant (Corexit 9550, Exxon), and two pools served as controls. The effects studied were those on abundance of heterotrophic bacteria, periphyton photosynthesis, growth of bladder wrack, phytoplankton growth, zooplankton abundance and diversity, benthic fauna, physiological responses of certain crustaceans and molluscs, and the growth of blue mussels. In addition, the total photosynthesis and respiration of the ecosystem were studied. Concentrations of oil in water and in blue mussels were monitored. The experiments showed that almost all the measured parameters were affected. When comparing the effects between the pools, several of the results indicated a stronger response for oil alone compared to oil and dispersant. This was particularly obvious when monitoring the production and respiration of the ecosystems. The explanation may be that the ecosystems in the pools exposed to oil and dispersant were exposed less time compared to those in the pools where oil alone was added. The oil and dispersant mixture obviously left the system much faster due to the water exchange compared to the oil without dispersant. In the latter case the oil adhered to surfaces and detritus and thus tended to stay longer in the environment. These results may provide valuable information for decision makers faced with an oil spill in shallow waters and who have an option to use an oil dispersant
© 1985 with permission from APIThe effects of a North Sea oil with or without the addition of dispersant were studied in a model of the littoral ecosystem of the Baltic Sea. Experiments were carried out in six pools with a volume of 8 m3 each with flowthrough seawater and an ecosystem of the shallow rocky Baltic archipelago. All major fauna and flora were transferred into the pools in normal numbers and proportions. Two of the pools were exposed to oil alone. The amount of oil was equivalent to 20 ppm assuming total mixture. Two other pools were exposed to the same amount of oil and an oil dispersant (Corexit 9550, Exxon), and two pools served as controls. The effects studied were those on abundance of heterotrophic bacteria, periphyton photosynthesis, growth of bladder wrack, phytoplankton growth, zooplankton abundance and diversity, benthic fauna, physiological responses of certain crustaceans and molluscs, and the growth of blue mussels. In addition, the total photosynthesis and respiration of the ecosystem were studied. Concentrations of oil in water and in blue mussels were monitored. The experiments showed that almost all the measured parameters were affected. When comparing the effects between the pools, several of the results indicated a stronger response for oil alone compared to oil and dispersant. This was particularly obvious when monitoring the production and respiration of the ecosystems. The explanation may be that the ecosystems in the pools exposed to oil and dispersant were exposed less time compared to those in the pools where oil alone was added. The oil and dispersant mixture obviously left the system much faster due to the water exchange compared to the oil without dispersant. In the latter case the oil adhered to surfaces and detritus and thus tended to stay longer in the environment. These results may provide valuable information for decision makers faced with an oil spill in shallow waters and who have an option to use an oil dispersant
This database consists of citations found in journals, conference proceedings, government reports and gray literature covering over 40 years of published research on oil spill dispersants. Citations were collected from 1960 through June 2008. This bibliography was compiled and edited by John Conover, Associate Librarian at LUMCON, and funded by a grant from the Louisiana Applied and Educational Oil Spill Research and Development Program (OSRADP).
EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Quarterly Issues
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Compilations
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- Biology
- Ecological, anatomical, and physiological effects of oil and/or gas, Species as biomarkers, PAH uptake and bioaccumulation, etc.
- Chemistry/Geochemistry/Geology
- Biochemistry, Biodegradation, Bioremediation, Hydrocarbon degradation, Environmental sampling, Soil contamination, etc.
- Engineering/Physics
- Technological advancements in facility/equipment design and use, Spill response and recovery equipment, Physical properties of oil and gas, etc.
- Environment/Ecosystem Management/Spills
- Environmental assessment and management, Oil and/or gas spill description and analysis, etc.
- Socioeconomic/Regulation/General
- Social and economic ramifications, Politics, Governmental policy and legislation, Organizational policy, General interest, etc.
Giessing, Anders M. B.; Mayer, Lawrence M.; Forbes, Thomas L. 1-hydroxypyrene glucuronide as the major aqueous pyrene metabolite in tissue and gut fluid from the marine deposit-feeding polychaete Nereis diversicolor. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2003;
Volume 22 (5): 1107-1114. ISSN: 0730-7268.
Phase I and phase II metabolites were identified in a species of polychaete after exposing the organism to pyrene. It is believed that 1-hydroxypyrene glucuronide, the only phase I metabolite of pyrene in this species, is a useful biomarker for PAH exposure.
Lichtfouse, E.; Eglinton, T.I. 13C and 14C evidence of pollution of a soil by fossil fuel and reconstruction of the composition of the pollutant. Organic Geochemistry, October 1995;
Volume 23 (10): 969-973. ISSN: 0146-6380.
Researchers use 13C/12C ratios, the 14C age and relative concentrations to assess the origins of n-alkanes in a polluted soil
Johannesen, J. et al. 3D oil migration modelling of the Jurassic petroleum system of the Stratfjord area, Norwegian North Sea. Petroleum Geoscience, 2002;
Volume 8 (1): 37-50. ISSN: 1354-0793.
This modelling study enabled researchers to determine the vertical and lateral migration of hydrocarbons over time, and to conclude that present-day resources are the result of a multi-layered, multi-directional migrating system originating from three separate fields.
Kong, Vincent W. T.; Smethurst, J.; Chiem, B. H.; Stewart, R. C.; Teh, G. H. 3D marine exploration seismic survey in shallow water area, offshore Sabah. Warta Geologi [Newsletter of the Geological Society of Malaysia], 1989;
Volume 15
Rowson, Chris. 4C seismic technology makes mark in Caspian Sea. Offshore, 2003;
Volume 63 (5): 50. ISSN: 0030-0608.
Continued investments in oil exploration in the Caspian Sea and the surrounding region has resulted in the use of modern exploration methods. Geophysical surveys that consist of (4C) 3D seismic surveys are being used to improve imaging of the subsurface.
Schmidt, Victor A. 2-D seismic vessels for 3-D missions: old 2-D vessels can be used in new, more productive ways, serving vessel owners, oil companies. Sea Technology, September 1994;
Volume 35 (9): 15-22. ISSN: 0093-3651.
Schmidt reports on the status of the geophysical exploration industry and examines the 2-D versus 3-D vessel problem
1993 final work plan: Exxon Valdez oil spill restoration, Anchorage, AK. The Trustees: [1993];
A plan of action is outlined regarding remediation of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill
LaBelle, R. P.; Galt, J. A.; Tennyson, E. J.; McGrattan, K. B. 1993 Spill off Tampa Bay, a candidate for burning?. Proceedings: Seventeenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Ottawa. Environment Canada: 1994;
Volume 1 635-649.
Authors describe the general behavior and movements of the spilled oil and the sea and weather conditions during and following the August 10, 1993 collision of the Tank Barge Ocean 255 and the Tank Barge Bouchard B-155 with the freighter Balsa 37 in Tampa Bay, Florida. In addition, discussed is the possibility of removing the oil by in-situ burning, and the results of smoke plume model runs
3D seismic yields more oil for Oryx off Texas. Oil and Gas Journal, 8-Nov-93;
Volume 91 33. ISSN: 0030-1388.
Reported is confirmation of a 25-30 million bbl oil discovery in the Gulf of Mexico by Oryx Energy, Dallas, employing a 3D seismic survey
1991 Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, March 1991, American Petroleum Institute: 1991;
Volume American Petroleum Institute Publications (4529):
1991 oil spill conference papers sought. Ocean Science News, April 10, 1990;
Volume 32 (10): 5.
1971 oil pollution compensation fund wound up. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2000;
Volume 40 (12): 1068. ISSN: 0025-326X.
A protocol was recently signed for the ending of the IOPC Fund, which is replaced by a Fund agreed on in 1992. The latter Fund allows for higher compensation for parties affected by oil pollution.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1991 state/federal natural resource damage assessment and restoration plan for the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Juneau, AK. Trustee Council: 1991;
Anon. 700,000 gallons of oil spilled in Texas. Environmental Protection News, September 8, 1990;
Volume 5 (17): 4.
Cedar-Southworth, Donna. 1995 promises good opportunities for offshore operators. MMS Today, Feb-95;
Volume 5 (1): 7-Jun.
Hank Bartholomew, Deputy Associate Director for Offshore Operations, discusses some of the high priorities for 1995, including interaction with states on oill spill response, OHMSETT plans, and training and safety programs
Hull, Jennifer Pallanich. 40 rigs at work in water depths over 1,000 feet. Offshore, 2001;
Volume 61 (2): 16. ISSN: 0030-0608.
The Minerals Management Service sees the amount of deepwater drilling activity as a good indication for potential economic growth in the Gulf of Mexico region.
Knott, D. 10 years on from Exxon Valdez spill. Oil & Gas Journal, March 22, 1999;
Volume 97 (12): 45. ISSN: 0030-1388.
Greenpeace campaigner, Matthew Spencer, told Oil & Gas Journal that 10 years after the Exxon Valdez spill the important issue was whether or not the politicians were doing a better job of regulating the oil industry. Archie Smith, Chief Executive of Oil Spill Response Ltd. of the U.K., said 'the U.S. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 which arose because of the Exxon Valdez spill, increased the industry's understanding of the risks and preparedness for dealing with spills'
Neil, Chris. 2003 shows spot cargoes, tankers to dictate US LNG supplies, not terminal
capacities. Oil & Gas Journal, 2004;
Volume 102 (12): 70-72. ISSN: 0030-1388.
Data presented in this article shows an increase in LNG spot cargo imports to the US for 2002 and 2003. Analysts predict that this trend will not continue for 2004 and 2005 based on the costs of regasification versus market prices for gas.
U.S. Geological Survey, National Oil and Gas Resource Assessment Team. 1995 National Assessment of United States Oil and Gas Resources: overview of the 1995 National Assessment of Potential Additions to Technically Recoverable Resources of Oil and Gas--Onshore and State Waters of the United States. Denver, CO. USGS Information Services: 1995;
Volume Circular 1118 20 p..
This circular is the fourth in a series of systematic assessments of undiscovered oil and gas in the United States
This bibliography is a quarterly compilation of current publications (citations with abstracts) from a wide variety of electronic and print information sources relating to offshore oil and gas development. It is compiled and edited by John Conover, Associate Librarian at LUMCON. Items listed may or may not be available at the LUMCON Library. Items without annotations were unavailable for perusal prior to publication.
All questions about using library facilities, locating library resources, or searching LUMCON catalogs should be directed to the Librarian.